Source: http://www. chicago fed.org/consumer_information/controlling_interest. cfm
 Controlling Interest: Are Ceilings On
 Interest Rates a Good Idea?
 Do ceilings always result in lower rates?
 Can ceilings reduce the amount of available credit?
 Do some borrowers tend to benefit from ceilings more than others?
 No one wants to pay more interest than is necessary when they use credit. Whether
 shopping for mortgages, business loans, or auto loans, we usually are concerned about rates
 and terms and want to make sure we do not pay too much for the use of someone else's
 money. Just as in any other purchase, when we buy credit we want to pay the lowest price
 possible.
 In the past, the government often tried to ensure that we pay "a fair rate" of interest by
 implementing usury ceilings or limits on the rates that lenders can charge. During the 1980s
 there was a general trend toward eliminating or raising these limits as policy-makers
 reacted to the high inflation and record interest rates of the late 1970s. During the early
 1990s, however, the trend reversed as some suggested that caps should be placed on credit
 card rates, which remained at historically high levels while other key interest rates declined
 significantly.
 On the surface, capping interest rates seems to be perfectly logical. To protect people from
 paying interest rates that are perceived as "too high, " the government can simply mandate
 that rates be kept below a certain level. However, interest rate ceilings can have unintended
 consequences. This essay examines these possible consequences by discussing the
 economic theory behind the arguments for and against usury ceilings.
 Just Another Market
 Laws designed to prevent usury, or the taking of "excessive" interest, have long been the
 subject of controversy. While advocates of usury ceilings claim that such controls protect
 consumers from abusive lending practices and enable them to obtain loans at reasonable
 rates, their critics argue that they work to consumers' disadvantage by restricting credit
 flows and distorting financial markets.
 In economic theory, the credit market is viewed like any other market. There are buyers
 (borrowers) and sellers (lenders) of credit; the price of credit is the interest rate. The credit
 market is easily represented in a conventional supply and demand diagram like the one
 shown below.
 As illustrated, the demand curve (DD) indicates the amount of credit borrowers are willing
 to purchase at various prices or interest rates. Since borrowers are typically willing and able
 to borrow more at lower prices, the demand curve slopes down and to the right, illustrating
 that higher prices, in this case interest rates, result in a lower quantity of credit demanded
 and vice versa.
 
 
 The supply curve (SS) reflects the amount of
 credit lenders are willing to provide at various
 rates. The curve slopes upward because
 lenders costs, including the cost of funds,
 increase as more credit is supplied. At the
 same time, higher rates (the price of credit)
 offer an incentive for savers to provide more
 funds for lending. That is, lenders are able and
 willing to offer more credit at higher rates of
 interest than at lower rates.
 In a competitive market, as borrowers increase
 their demands for a limited supply of credit,
 they compete with one another, thus "bidding
 up" prices. But as prices (rates) rise, lenders
 will want to offer more credit, thereby
 increasing supply and helping to satisfy
 demand. In addition, as prices increase,
 demand will generally decrease. This
 "bidding" process continues until borrowers and lenders eventually establish an equilibrium
 price that balances the supply of and demand for credit. This price is called the market rate
 of interest, which is represented on the second diagram as the point where the demand
 curve and supply curve intersect.
 Lower Rates Can Be Bad - Sometimes
 Usury laws establish a legal maximum interest rate (or price) that lenders may charge for a
 loan or extension of credit. These laws are, in effect, a form of price control.
 When a usury law is introduced, it may have no impact on the credit market or it may alter
 the way in which price and quantity are determined. Exactly what happens depends on
 where the usury ceiling is relative to the market rate.
 When the legal ceiling is above the market rate of interest, the law has no effect at all. The
 market forces of supply and demand are not bound by the usury ceiling, and the equilibrium
 price and quantity of credit are unchanged. However, when the legal ceiling is below the
 market rate of interest, the regulation can affect the market outcome. Such a usury ceiling is
 said to be binding or effective. A binding ceiling obviously alters the price of credit 00the
 ceiling rate becomes the rate of interest charged.
 But, establishing a lower-than-market interest rate by means of a usury ceiling will also
 bring about a decrease in the quantity of credit supplied. Given lenders costs, the amount of
 credit they will provide when the interest rate is held down is limited. Like any other
 business, if a lender does not recoup its costs and earn an adequate return on its resources, it
 will put those resources to work elsewhere.
 Since the amount of credit offered will not satisfy all those who are willing to borrow at the
 ceiling price, excess demand is created, giving rise to a situation in which the reduced
 amount of credit must be rationed among borrowers by some means other than price.
 
 
 The diagram left illustrates a binding ceiling.
 The usury ceiling intersects supply and
 demand below the equilibrium price,
 indicating that the quantity demanded exceeds
 the quantity supplied at the legal maximum
 rate or price. The gap between the supply and
 demand curves represents a "credit crunch, " in
 which credit is not available despite the fact
 that there is demand for it.
 Who Gets Hurt and Who Gets Credit?
 Many of the strategies lenders are likely to
 follow in a "credit crunch, " such as setting
 rigid loan terms, screening borrowers more
 rigorously, or increasing non-interest fees and
 charges, tend to concentrate the impact of
 usury ceilings on certain borrowers. For example, imposing more stringent loan terms such
 as shorter maturities and higher minimum loan size reallocates credit toward those who are
 able to afford larger down payments or larger monthly payments, generally those with
 higher incomes. Basing lending decisions heavily on individual characteristics, such as
 borrowing history or income, without the flexibility of adding risk premiums, can ration
 credit away from new or high-risk consumers who might be willing to pay higher-than-
 ceiling rates. Finally, adding non-interest charges (such as higher fees) eliminates from the
 market those for whom these extra costs are too great.
 By encouraging these lending practices, usury ceilings may fail to give consumers the
 protection and benefits that they were intended to provide. That is, usury laws may actually
 reduce the amount of credit that is available to low income or inexperienced borrowers.
 Low-priced credit is not useful to those who cannot meet the requirements for obtaining it.
 Thus, when lenders ration credit by some means other than price, first-time borrowers,
 small borrowers, low-income and high-risk borrowers are likely to find it more difficult to
 obtain credit. The most creditworthy borrowers, on the other hand, may obtain more credit
 than they would have at normal market interest rates.
 Furthermore, when lenders institute non-interest charges such as fees to compensate for
 interest rate ceilings, they effectively raise the cost of credit for all successful borrowers.
 Therefore, while a ceiling may reduce the explicit price of credit (interest rate), it may not
 result in lower overall costs of borrowing even for those able to obtain loans. Additionally,
 non-interest charges make it more complicated for customers to comprehend the total cost
 of borrowing and more difficult to make well-informed credit decisions.
 While these lending practices and their undesirable consequences may exist in the absence
 of interest rate ceilings, several studies on the effects of usury ceilings have established that
 loan terms do become less favorable to borrowers when usury ceilings become more
 restrictive.
 Increased Competition and Consumer Responsibility
 
 
 A common argument in favor of usury laws is that without them, borrowers would be
 forced to pay exorbitant interest rates, or at least rates that are unreasonable in relation to
 the cost of supplying credit.
 According to economic theory, a competitive market is sufficient to prevent lenders from
 exercising power over pricing or earning more than a normal return. The price established
 in a competitive market reflects suppliers' costs of providing the given amount of that good.
 To be sure, removing a binding usury ceiling will result in higher interest rates. However, if
 credit markets are competitive, the resulting market rate of interest will not exceed lenders
 costs (including a fair return) of supplying credit. It is when competition is absent that
 consumers may face unreasonable interest rates. Thus, the consequences of not having
 usury ceilings depend importantly on the competitiveness of credit markets. Indeed, the
 absence of competition is the only reason for imposing a usury ceiling that can be justified
 by economic theory.
 Some of the responsibility for ensuring a competitive marketplace must be placed on
 borrowers themselves, since knowledgeable, informed borrowers help to foster competition
 in credit markets. When consumers do not know or cannot compare rates being charged by
 various lenders, each lender has more freedom to charge any rate 00fair or unfair. A high
 level of borrower awareness can create a natural protection from unreasonable interest rates,
 in lieu of the external constraint of a usury ceiling.1
 Economic theory suggests that interest rates are best determined by the marketplace rather
 than by legislative mandate. In the case of credit cards, however, some felt in the early
 1990s that the market was not working as it should. Although most interest rates on
 consumer and business loans decreased significantly, credit card rates remained close to
 their highs of the early 1980s, seemingly impervious to market forces.
 Credit Cards Are No Different
 The credit cards that seemed to attract the most attention were the bank-issued "universal"
 cards such as Visa and Mastercard. These cards are called "universal" because of their wide
 acceptance at all types of establishments in contrast to retailer-issued cards and travel and
 entertainment cards. However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the distinctions were
 starting to blur as bank credit cards faced competition from new players, such as Sears,
 AT&T, and GM.
 Prior to the 1970s, there were only a few bank credit cards in existence. Most were tied to a
 specific bank network and lacked the "universal" aspect we take for granted today. The
 rapid expansion of Bank of America's program (today's Visa) and the Interbank group's
 program (MasterCard) in the early 1970s established the foundation for today's industry.
 From their earliest days, both card systems realized that a wide customer base would be
 highly desirable. Because of the nature of the service being extended, with issuing banks
 receiving only a very small percentage of each purchase amount charged, the best way to
 cover costs would be through a huge volume of customers and transactions. But widening
 the customer base brought more and more people into the credit pool who otherwise would
 not have qualified for cards. This increased risks to the banks and necessitated a higher
 interest rate on unpaid balances.
 The inflation of the late 1970s and early 1980s also had an effect. Generally, any loan that
 is extended to a consumer is paid back with dollars that are earned in the future. Because of
 
 
 this, both borrowers and lenders include expected inflation in setting the interest rate.
 2
 This
 is done so that the lender or provider of the funds does not lose purchasing power as a result
 of making the loan.
 During the late 1970s and early 1980s, as
 inflation rates reached into the teens, the usury
 ceilings established in many states became
 binding. As inflation rates surpassed the legal
 maximum interest rates in many of these
 states, a few banks chose to get out of the
 credit card business. Others relocated to those
 states with higher usury ceilings or no ceilings
 at all. But as rates rose, another important
 phenomenon became apparent: consumers use
 of credit cards proved to be relatively inelastic
 00i. e., demand did not appear to decline as
 prices (interest rates) rose. Inelastic demand is
 illustrated in the diagram left in which the
 quantity of credit demanded changes by
 relatively small amounts as represented by the
 nearly vertical slope DD compared to the size
 of the price (interest rate) change.
 During the late 1970s and early 1980s, even though the nominal rates on credit cards rose,
 almost the same percentage of customers were carrying balances. In essence, there was
 little or no change in the demand for credit. Additionally, the dollar amount of the average
 balance being carried forward and financed from month to month had actually almost
 doubled.
 Thus, credit card users proved to be relatively slow in responding to changes in the
 marketplace, which were reflected in higher credit costs in the 1980s. With seemingly
 inelastic demand for credit, higher prices did not affect the amount of credit demanded as
 much as expected.
 What Caused the Inelasticity
 As discussed previously, every transaction has a seller and a purchaser, a supply side and a
 demand side. When credit is used, supply comes from the lender. Sellers want prices to
 exceed their costs of production, which for credit card transactions includes the costs banks
 must pay to secure funds to lend. There are additional overhead and transaction costs as
 well. But, in the simplest textbook treatment, the cost of funds to banks is estimated as the
 rate they are paying depositors or to borrow funds in the open market (usually estimated at
 the Treasury bill rate or the federal funds rate) .
 The risk factor to the bank also affects the supply side. The fact that the loan represented by
 cards is unsecured (not backed by any collateral) makes the loan risky. Unlike mortgages
 and auto loans, the bank retains no lien against the property purchased. When there is no
 threat of repossession, the loan is generally believed to be at greater risk of default and loss.
 Because of this, a riskier loan demands higher interest rates. Therefore, one would expect
 
 
 an unsecured credit card loan to have a higher rate than a similar secured loan.
 Nevertheless, rates for credit cards should change in line with the general level of interest
 rates, even with a higher risk premium. Interestingly, most statistics indicate that the level
 of default for credit cards has tended to fluctuate within a fairly narrow range over time.
 Therefore, it appears there is little on the supply side of the equation to explain why credit
 card rates stayed level while other rates fell.
 There are a number of factors on the demand side which may explain the lack of elasticity
 for credit card demand during the 1980s. One interesting factor was the apparent "brand
 loyalty" of credit card customers during the period. This was particularly interesting
 because studies indicate that Americans show varying levels of brand loyalty to many
 products that they use. Credit cards would seem to be an odd item to invoke brand loyalty,
 but surveys have shown that only recently have large numbers of consumers begun to
 cancel the first credit card they received (often very expensive) in favor of those with a
 lower price (interest rate and/or annual fee).
 This "brand loyalty" may reflect, in part, how aggressively different institutions pursued
 customers. Those financial institutions that advertised heavily for new customers often had
 higher rates and less restrictive credit qualifications. Institutions offering lower rates and
 with more restrictive qualifications often were not as aggressive in seeking new
 cardholders.
 A related aspect of brand loyalty may be an affinity for cards issued by the "big name"
 banks. In general, the credit itself is no different whether offered by a large money-center
 bank or a small town independent bank, but consumers may have the perception that having
 a card issued by a large bank is an indication of creditworthiness.
 There also appears to have been a perception among consumers that obtaining a new card
 would not result in sufficient savings. This would be true if the consumer is in that portion
 (approximately one third) that pays the balance due, in full, each month. Under those
 circumstances, and if the card carries no annual fee, why worry about the interest rate?
 Even some of those who do carry a balance may not worry about the interest rate. Several
 studies have noted that more consumers see themselves as convenience borrowers
 (charging and paying off the entire balance monthly) than really exhibit such behavior; one
 study showed almost twice as many. Thus some consumers may not be concerned about
 interest rates even when they incur interest charges.
 How Does One Define Competition?
 Thus, there are several alternative explanations for the "non-competitiveness" in credit card
 rates ranging from brand loyalty to consumers' self-perception. But, we need to examine
 competition itself. Many people think of competition purely in terms of price, with one
 supplier lowering price to gain a market advantage, and subsequently forcing other
 suppliers to do likewise or lose market share. But another method of competing is to
 improve the quality of the product: that is, to keep the price constant but to provide more to
 the consumer.
 If we follow this line of reasoning, it is possible that credit cards are more competitive than
 commonly believed. Early on, credit card issuers saw quality as a way to provide more
 service to the customer without a substantial increase in costs. Among features that were
 rapidly introduced as technology improved were cash advances, which allowed customers
 
 
 to borrow cash without going through a formal loan process 00in essence, a personal credit
 line. The 1980s also saw a proliferation of services attached to credit cards such as "buyer
 protection, " which allowed for free replacement should an item purchased with the card be
 defective or stolen; random refunds of credit card purchases; and cash bonuses or other
 rebates on purchases of select products based on total purchases made with the card.
 These services have added to the perceived quality of the product, and all of them involve
 some cost to the supplier. In cases in which these costs were not charged directly to the
 customer, institutions chose to compete by improving quality as well as by lowering price.
 Evolution in the '90s
 Why, then, did credit card rates appear to remain high in the early 1990s rather than return
 to the levels of the early 1970s? Part of the answer lies in the costs that are inherent in
 providing credit cards, such as the high risk of unsecured loans. But perhaps a more
 important factor was the credit card market itself. As we've seen, demand for credit cards
 was relatively inelastic, with consumers less responsive to interest rates than might have
 been expected. On the supply side, ten issuing institutions accounted for more than half of
 the cards in the United States at the end of the 1980s. Although it would be wrong to say
 that the market did not work, it is appropriate to ask whether a market dominated by a
 relatively small number of suppliers responding to inelastic demand by buyers can be
 considered truly competitive.
 However, that situation began to change in the early 1990s. Consumers have become more
 aware of credit card terms and rates and more willing to search for the best deal, matching
 services to their needs. And, importantly, a host of new competitors have entered the card
 field, greatly intensifying competition in terms of both service and price. The "high" prices,
 whether actual or perceived, attracted new sellers to the market. In short, the market worked
 the way it usually has in the past, fostering increased competition and more selection for
 consumers.
 As competition continues to increase within the credit card market, consumers will have
 more choices. As consumers take advantage of their additional options, the market will be
 better able to allocate credit via various forms of competition, including price and service.
 There is something to be gained by understanding that, despite their stated intentions to the
 contrary, consumers are likely to run a balance and pay interest. Likewise, services and
 perks that are never used have no value and do add costs. Consumers need to match the
 card to their use and choose accordingly. As was stated earlier, a high level of borrower
 awareness can create a natural protection from unreasonable interest rates, in lieu of the
 external constraint of a usury ceiling. With increased awareness, the "invisible hand" of the
 marketplace can help to ensure that the credit card market meets the needs of borrowers and
 lenders alike.
 Information on Credit Card Rates
 The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System publishes extensive information on
 credit cards in its on-line publication Shop: The Card You Pick Can Save You Money .
 Information provided includes interest rates, annual fees (if any), grace periods,
 geographic limitations, and other information pertinent to making an informed consumer
 choice.
 
 
 Notes
 1
 In an effort to enhance the ability of consumers to compare interest rate charges and,
 therefore, to discourage unfair lending practices, Congress enacted the Truth in Lending
 Act in 1968. Unlike usury laws, Truth in Lending does not set interest rate limits. Rather, it
 requires creditors to provide clear and consistent information about loan terms so that
 consumers can easily "shop" for the best price and avoid charges that are out of line.
 2
 See Points of Interest , (PDF,7.74MB) published by the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago,
 for more information on how inflation is calculated into interest rates.